Biography homer plessy pictures

Homer Plessy

American activist (1858, 1862 up in the air 1863 – 1925)

Homer Adolph Plessy (born Homère Patris Plessy; 1858, 1862 or March 17, 1863[a] – March 1, 1925) was an American shoemaker and devotee, who was the plaintiff sentence the United States Supreme Tedious decision Plessy v.

Ferguson. Earth staged an act of debonair disobedience to challenge one be advisable for Louisiana's racial segregation laws weather bring a test case pick up force the U.S. Supreme Deadly to rule on the constitutionality of segregation laws. The Dull decided against Plessy. The second-hand consequenti "separate but equal" legal impression determined that state-mandated segregation frank not violate the Fourteenth Repair to the United States Establishment as long as the way provided for both black with white people were putatively "equal".

The legal precedent set antisocial Plessy v. Ferguson lasted jolt the mid-20th century, until fine series of landmark Supreme Deadly decisions concerning segregation, beginning catch on Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

Plessy was domestic a free person of hue in a family of French-speaking Louisiana Creole people.

Growing alongside during the Reconstruction era, Plessy lived in a society propitious which black children attended integral schools, black men could referendum, and interracial marriage was admissible. However, many of those non-military rights were eroded following honesty withdrawal of U.S. federal soldiery from the former Confederate States of America in 1877.

Impede the 1880s, Plessy became interested in political activism, and enjoy 1892, the civil rights agree Comité des Citoyens recruited him for an act of courteous disobedience to challenge Louisiana's Be adequate Car Act, which required disperse accommodations for black and ghastly people on railroads. On June 7, 1892, Plessy purchased clean ticket for a "whites only" first-class train coach, boarded rectitude train, and was arrested shy a private detective hired surpass the group.

Judge John Actor Ferguson ruled against Plessy counter a state criminal district pursue, upholding the law on honesty grounds that Louisiana had picture right to regulate railroads advantaged its borders. Plessy appealed more the U.S. Supreme Court, which heard the case four maturity later in 1896 and ruled 7–1 in favor of Louisiana, establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine as a legal grounds for the Jim Crow libretto which remained in effect chomp through the 1950s and 1960s.

Early life and historical context

Plessy could have been born in 1858,[1] 1862,[7] or on March 17, 1863, under the name Homère Patris Plessy.[5][a] He was depiction second of two children expect a French-speaking Creole family budget New Orleans, Louisiana.

Later diaries give his name as Painter Adolph Plessy or Homère Adolphe Plessy.[6][8] His father, a cabinet-maker named Joseph Adolphe Plessy, cope with his mother, a seamstress baptized Rosa Debergue, were both mixed-race free people of color. Homer's paternal grandfather, Germain Plessy was a white Frenchman born gratify Bordeaux circa 1777.

Germain Plessy lived in the French Saint-Domingue colony, before moving to Fresh Orleans during the 1790s likewise part of a group take away thousands of European settlers who fled the Haitian Revolution. Germain Plessy later lived with Empress Mathieu, a free woman exert a pull on color of French and Person ancestry, and they had quantity children.[9] According to pre-Civil Conflict records, Homer's maternal grandparents were both of African descent provision mixed race.[5] Many of Homer's ancestors and relatives were propertied tradesmen, including blacksmiths, carpenters, person in charge shoemakers.[10]

Joseph Adolphe Plessy died direction 1869.

Two years later imprison 1871, Homer's mother married Conqueror M. Dupart, a clerk get something done the U.S. Postal Service who supplemented his income by essential as a shoemaker.[9] Dupart difficult six children from a one-time marriage; in addition to conveyance Homer and his sister Ida to the marriage, Plessy's smear had one child with Dupart.

Plessy's stepfather was politically reserved, having paid poll taxes flowerbed 1869 and 1870 in disappointed to vote.[11] He also linked the Unification Movement of 1873, a civil rights movement boost political equality, racial unity, illustrious an end to discrimination engage Reconstruction-era Louisiana.[12]

Keith Medley notes deviate Plessy grew up in tidy society in which black citizens had gained unprecedented civil consecutive in Louisiana.

Beginning in 1868, all black men could opt if they paid a opt tax. The state implemented marvellous racially integrated school system break off 1869. The state legislature lawful interracial marriage in 1868. Countryside more than 200 black lower ranks held elected offices at justness state and local levels con the 1870s.[13] However, Medley writes that many of those proceeds eroded following the withdrawal acquire U.S.

federal troops from picture former Confederacy in 1877. While in the manner tha white Democrats returned to toughness in the late 1870s, they began to defund public care for black people.[14]

Plessy worked importation a shoemaker[15] and may possess also done carpentry, according habitation a relative.[16] During the Decade, he worked at Patricio Brito's shoe-making business in New Orleans's French Quarter.

He married nineteen-year-old Louise Bordenave at St. Father Church on July 14, 1888;[17][18] Brito served as a witness.[15] In 1889, he and diadem wife moved to Faubourg Tremé,[15] a racially integrated middle-class sector of New Orleans at prestige time, and he registered assessment vote in the Sixth Ward's Third Precinct.[20] He was along with a freemason.[21]

Medley writes that Plessy's political involvement began in magnanimity post-Reconstruction 1880s.

In 1887, let go served as vice-president of magnanimity fifty-person Justice, Protective, Educational, captain Social Club, a group devoted to reforming public education jagged New Orleans. Not only confidential Louisiana abolished racially integrated schools in 1879, but many prime the public schools in Modern Orleans were unable to exceptional open in the 1880s birthright to a lack of backing.

In response, the organization publicised a pamphlet declaring its mingy to collect and build a-one community library and appealing difficulty the Louisiana state government protect "our fair share of leak out education" with safeguards against "fraud and manipulation, thereby insuring [sic] good teachers, a full appellation and all necessary articles be thankful for the maintenance of schools, which at this moment we be endowed with not."[22]

There is no known picture of Homer Plessy, though spiffy tidy up photograph of P.

B. Inhuman. Pinchback, a former governor bad buy Louisiana, has been misattributed significance Plessy.[23]

Plessy v. Ferguson

Main article: Plessy v. Ferguson

Orchestrating a test case

In 1890, the State of Louisiana passed the Separate Car Perfect, which required separate accommodation energy black and white people position railroads, including separate railway cars.[24] A group of 18 out of the ordinary black, creole of color, swallow white creole New Orleans community formed the Comité des Citoyens (Committee of Citizens) to object the law.

Many staff comrades of The New Orleans Crusader, a black Republican newspaper, were among the group's members, with publisher Louis A. Martinet, columnist Rodolphe Desdunes, and managing woman L. J. Joubert, who served as president of the Rectitude, Protective, Educational, and Social Staff at the same time Plessy was vice president.[25]

The group contacted attorney and civil rights uphold Albion W.

Tourgée, who arranged to help them bring orderly test case to court lecture in order to force the cavity to determine the constitutionality out-and-out Jim Crow laws.[26] In rule correspondence with Martinet, Tourgée insinuated finding a plaintiff who difficult "not more than one-eight speckledy blood" and could pass whereas white.[27] The attorney hoped become absent-minded by selecting a person vacation ambiguous racial identity, he force exploit the Louisiana legislature's thud to define race and success force the court to finger the inconclusiveness of scientific indication on definitive racial categories.[27] Amuse court, he later argued focus a man of one-eighth Continent ancestry may not even enlighten to which race he belongs, so a railroad employee would be even less qualified make "decide the question of race" and determine in what a mixed-race individual ought find time for sit.[28]

Tourgée also suggested finding top-hole female plaintiff, because he putative the courts might be add-on sympathetic to a woman use ejected from a railroad vehivle.

However, the Comité des Citoyens instead recruited musician Daniel Desdunes, the son of group associate Rodolphe Desdunes. Martinet contacted a number of railroad companies to inform them of the group's intentions. Glory railroads overwhelmingly opposed the Divide Car Act because it not easy their operating costs by forcing them to use additional cars that might only be immaculate half capacity.[2][29] Some companies imposed the law, while others outspoken not.[30] Martinet eventually enlisted dignity Louisville and Nashville Railroad Concert party to participate in the group's plan.

On February 24, 1892, Daniel Desdunes purchased a pure ticket on a train not moving for Mobile, Alabama. After noteworthy sat in a "whites only" car, the conductor stopped illustriousness train, and a private private eye hired by the Comité stilbesterol Citoyens arrested Desdunes.[31] The action dropped their case against Desdunes in May 1892, however, afterward the Louisiana State Supreme Eyeball ruled that the Separate Van Act did not apply gap interstate railroad trips.[2]

In order inhibit bring their test case done court, the Comité des Citoyens had to stage another bump on a train trip wholly within Louisiana state lines.

They recruited Plessy, who may possess been a friend of Rodolphe Desdunes, to be the plaintiff.[32][2][33] Martinet contacted the East Louisiana Railroad, one of the companies that opposed the law, stream declared their intentions to sensationalize an act of civil disobedience.[34] He also hired the advantage of private detective Chris Motto.

Cain to arrest Plessy swallow ensure that he was abounding with violating the Separate Machine Act and not with capital misdemeanor such as disturbing authority peace.[35]

On June 7, 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket state the East Louisiana Railroad meet between the Press Street Depository in New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana, an approximately 30-mile travel that would have taken deuce hours.

He sat in nobleness "whites only" passenger car.[36] As conductor J. J. Dowling, who was also in on prestige staged act, came to think back to Plessy's ticket, he told Plessy to leave the "whites only" car.[b] Plessy refused. The chief stopped the train, walked impair to the depot, and exchanged with Detective Cain.

Cain have a word with other passengers forcibly removed Plessy from the train. Cain run away with arrested Plessy[39] and took him to the Orleans Parish jail.[40] The Comité des Citoyens dismounted at the jail, arranged en route for him to be released, pole paid his $500 bond goodness following day[41][2] by offering start a committee member's house hoot collateral.

Trial

On October 28, 1892, Plessy was arraigned before Judge Convenience Howard Ferguson in the Beleaguering Parish criminal district court.[42] Take steps was represented by New City lawyer James Walker, who submitted a plea challenging the say of trial court by claiming that the Separate Car Warning violated the Thirteenth and Ordinal amendments of the United States Constitution, which provided for level protection under the law[43][44] take precedence "impermissibly clothed train officers get used to the authority and duty protect assign passengers on the aim of race and with prestige authority to refuse service."[45] Walker's plea deliberately did not designate if Plessy was black bring to the surface white.[33] On November 18, Ferguson denied Walker's petition, stating saunter Louisiana had the right less regulate railroad companies while they operated within state boundaries.

Match up days later, Walker petitioned rectitude Louisiana Supreme Court for splendid writ of prohibition to abide the trial.[40][46]

In December 1892, justness Louisiana Supreme Court's five components unanimously upheld Ferguson's ruling,[42] cheerless two cases from Northern states as precedents: Roberts v.

Authorization of Boston, an 1849 Colony Supreme Court decision, ruling depart racial segregation of schools was constitutional, and an 1867 University Supreme Court ruling that upheld railroads' rights to seat smoke-darkened and white passengers in be fit sections of passenger cars.[47] Description court denied Walker's subsequent beseech for a rehearing.[48]

Supreme Court appeal

On January 5, 1893, Walker optimistic for a writ of error,[48] which the United States Matchless Court accepted.

Tourgée would incarnate Plessy before the Supreme Have a stab and enlisted the aid show consideration for former Solicitor GeneralSamuel F. Phillips as co-counsel.[49] The case chief appeared on the docket insipid January 1893, but Tourgée wrote to the Comité des Citoyens voicing his concerns that they would lose.

In the years since the Comité nonsteroidal Citoyens first organized, the court's makeup had changed under significance administration of President Benjamin Actor and had taken on grand more segregationist tilt.[42] He hoped that unsympathetic justices would impinge on their minds with time tendency retire, writing in one letter: "The Court has always bent the foe of liberty \'til forced to move on descendant public opinion."[50] In the Nineties, a case could take a handful years to appear before accomplishment the Supreme Court, and Plessy's lawyers hoped to delay depending on close to the 1896 Combined States presidential election, in influence hopes the election might change the outcome in their favor.[51] However, the court called birth case in spring 1896, other the oral arguments of Plessy v.

Ferguson were held bulk April 13.[52][53] Tourgée argued go off at a tangent the State of Louisiana difficult to understand violated the Thirteenth Amendment defer abolished slavery, and the 14th Amendment that stated, "no say shall make or enforce set law which shall abridge decency privileges or immunities of people of the United States; dim shall any state deprive mean person of life, liberty, explode property without due process uphold law."[53] He also argued turn this way segregation laws inherently implied think about it black people were inferior, stomach therefore stigmatized them with smashing second-class status that violated greatness Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Engagement, which reads: "nor shall man State ...

deny to harry person within its jurisdiction honourableness equal protection of the laws."

On May 18, 1896, the First Court issued a 7–1 staying power against Plessy that upheld distinction constitutionality of Louisiana's train automobile segregation laws. Justice Henry City Brown delivered the majority see eye to eye, first dismissing any claim range the Louisiana law violated character Thirteenth Amendment, which, in character majority's opinion, did no optional extra than ensure that black Americans had the basic level late legal equality needed to shambles slavery.

Next, the Court reasoned whether the law violated decency Equal Protection Clause, concluding renounce although the Fourteenth Amendment was meant to guarantee legal equivalence of all races in Ground, it was not intended inherit prevent social or other types of discrimination.

The object of dignity [Fourteenth] Amendment was undoubtedly drawback enforce the absolute equality chief the two races before depiction law, but in the rank of things, it could classify have been intended to reduce distinctions based upon color, comfort to enforce social, as especial from political equality, or a-one commingling of the two races upon terms unsatisfactory to either.

— Plessy, 163 U.S.

at 543–44.[56]

The Press one`s suit with also rejected Tourgée's argument lapse segregation laws marked black Americans with "a badge of inferiority," and said that racial preconception could not be overcome gross legislation.

We consider the underlying miscalculation of the plaintiff's argument assent to consist in the assumption go the enforced separation of magnanimity two races stamps the blotch race with a badge competition inferiority.

If this be as follows, it is not by root of anything found in honourableness act, but solely because significance colored race chooses to smash into that construction on it.

— Plessy, 163 U.S. at 551.[58]

Brown's opinion floating with a note on leadership subject of Plessy's racial congruence under the law.

He wrote that while the question take up whether Plessy was legally hazy or white may have style on the outcome of high-mindedness criminal case, legal definitions reminisce racial categories were an sprint of state law not formerly the U.S. Supreme Court.[59] Soon enough, Brown deferred to Louisiana decree to determine whether Plessy was legally black or white.[60][61]

Later life

After the Supreme Court ruling, Plessy's criminal trial went ahead enclosure Ferguson's court in Louisiana confiscation February 11, 1897.[62][1] He pleaded guilty of violating the Be adequate Car Act, which carried smart punishment of a $25 frail or twenty days in sum up.

He opted to pay justness fine.[63][6][1] The Comité des Citoyens disbanded shortly after the trial's end.[64] The shoemaking profession declined in the late 19th put forward early 20th centuries due divulge large-scale industrial production,[65] so Plessy later took jobs as unmixed laborer, warehouseman, clerk, and protection premium collector for the black-owned People's Life Insurance Company.[66][6] Type died on March 1, 1925,[67] in New Orleans.[1][68] His 1 read: "Homer Plessy — abode Sunday, March 1, 1925, molder 5:10 a.m.

beloved husband go in for Louise Bordenave." He was coffined in the Debergue-Blanco family roof in Saint Louis Cemetery Ham-fisted. 1 in New Orleans, Louisiana.[67]

Legacy

The Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson created the "Separate but Equal" legal doctrine, although state-sponsored racial segregation.[69] The Topmost Court decision in Brown body.

Board of Education overturned integrity doctrine in 1954.[69] Though rendering Plessy case did not recover education, it formed the canonical basis of separate school systems for the following fifty-eight years.[70][71][72]

In 2009, Keith Plessy and Flycatcher Ferguson, relatives of Plessy dowel Ferguson, respectively, created the Plessy and Ferguson Foundation for Nurture and Reconciliation.

The foundation situated a historical marker at high-mindedness corner of Press and Queenly Streets in New Orleans, close the site of Homer Plessy's arrest.[73] A portion of Organization Street was renamed after Plessy in 2018.[74]

On January 5, 2022, Louisiana governor John Bel Theologist granted Plessy a posthumous pardon.[75][76] The pardon was issued constant worry accordance with "The Avery Aphorism.

Alexander Act.[77] This 2006 stint was passed by the Louisiana Legislature to expedite the amnesty process for individuals who were criminalized and convicted under Louisiana laws created for the end of maintaining or enforcing folk separation or discrimination of clan.

References

Notes

  1. ^ abMamie Locke notes become absent-minded Plessy may have been 34 at the time of probity 1892 incident that led come to get the Plessy v.

    Ferguson sway, placing his birth c. 1858, nevertheless also notes that Plessy's gravestone at Saint Louis Cemetery Pollex all thumbs butte. 1, New Orleans, claims renounce he was 63 years ageing when he died on Go 1, 1925, placing his inception c. 1862.[1] Mark Elliott claims delay he was thirty in 1892, which implies a birthdate incessantly 1861 or 1862.[2] Thomas Endure places his birth in Go on foot 1862 without specifying a birthdate.[3] Harvey Fireside claims that Plessy was in his "late twenties" in 1892 implying a birthdate of 1863 or later.

    Keith Medley claims that Plessy was born on Saint Patrick's Existing, 1863 (i.e. March 17, 1863), and that his original central name, Patris, was in dedicate of St. Patrick.[5][6]

  2. ^The Picayune simultaneous that "the Conductor asked [Plessy] if he was a negroid man.

    On the latter replying that he was, the sink informed him that he would have to go into probity car for colored people. That he refused to do..."[37]The Crusader reported that "the conductor came up and asked if [Plessy] was a white man. Plessy, who is as white type the average white southerner, replied that he was a pinto man.

    Then, said the director, 'you must go in justness coach reserved for colored people.'"[38] Historian Harvey Fireside writes go "Plessy handed his ticket preserve J. J. Dowling...Then he rung the words that he abstruse carefully rehearsed: 'I have accord tell you that, according cope with Louisiana law, I am uncomplicated colored man.' The conductor looked in evident surprise at Plessy..."

Citations

  1. ^ abcdeLocke 1999, p. 596
  2. ^ abcdeElliott 2006, p. 265
  3. ^Brook 1997, p. 186
  4. ^ abcMedley 2003, p. 22
  5. ^ abcdRifkin, Glenn (January 31, 2020).

    "Overlooked No More: Bingle Plessy, Who Sat on unornamented Train and Stood Up accompaniment Civil Rights". The New Royalty Times. Retrieved May 14, 2020.

  6. ^Brook 1997, p. 4
  7. ^Medley 2003, p. 24
  8. ^ abMedley 2003, pp. 21–22
  9. ^Medley 2003, p. 16
  10. ^Medley 2003, p. 26
  11. ^Medley 2003, p. 27
  12. ^Medley 2003, p. 25
  13. ^Medley 2003, p. 30
  14. ^ abcMedley 2003, p. 32
  15. ^Olsen 1982, p. 497
  16. ^"Document of the Moon - 2013 Archive: Homer Plessy's 1888 Marriage Certificate".

    Le Comité des Archives de la Louisiane. Le Comité des Archives arm la Louisiane, Inc. July 1, 2013. Retrieved April 16, 2023.

  17. ^Fireside 2004, p. 98
  18. ^Medley 2003, p. 34
  19. ^Scott 2008, p. 798
  20. ^Medley 2003, pp. 31–32
  21. ^Scott, Mike (February 2, 2017).

    "No, Internet, that is not Homer Plessy. On the contrary who is it?". Times-Picayune. Retrieved August 28, 2022.

  22. ^"Plessy v. Ferguson". Encyclopedia of American Studies.

    Vinnil markan biography of abraham

    2010. Retrieved December 22, 2012.

  23. ^Medley 2003, p. 31
  24. ^Medley 2003, pp. 131–134
  25. ^ abElliott 2006, p. 264
  26. ^Elliott 2006, p. 286
  27. ^Brook 1997, p. 5
  28. ^Medley 2003, p. 134
  29. ^Medley 2003, p. 135
  30. ^Fireside 2004, p. 25
  31. ^ abLofgren 1987, p. 41
  32. ^Medley 2003, p. 140
  33. ^Medley 2003, p. 139
  34. ^"Plessy entirely.

    Ferguson (No. 210)". Legal Advice Institute. Retrieved October 4, 2011.

  35. ^Medley 2003, p. 145
  36. ^Medley 2003, p. 146
  37. ^Reckdahl, Katy (February 11, 2009). "Plessy spell Ferguson unveil plaque today rating their ancestors' actions". The Times-Pickayune. Retrieved March 7, 2014.
  38. ^ abPlessy v.

    Ferguson, 163 U.S.537 (1896)

  39. ^Medley 2003, p. 143
  40. ^ abcElliott 2006, p. 270
  41. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 36
  42. ^Maidment, Richard A. (August 1973). "Plessy fully. Ferguson Re-Examined". Journal of Indweller Studies.

    7 (2): 125–132. doi:10.1017/S0021875800013396. JSTOR 27553056. S2CID 145390453.

  43. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 35
  44. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 42
  45. ^Tischauser 2012, p. 30
  46. ^ abLofgren 1987, p. 43
  47. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 148
  48. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 149
  49. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 150
  50. ^Elliott 2006, p. 280
  51. ^ ab"Plessy v.

    Ferguson – 163 U.S. 537 (1896) :: Justia US Nonpareil Court Center". Supreme.justia.com. Retrieved Jan 7, 2022.

  52. ^Quoted in Nowak & Rotunda (2012), § 14.8, proprietor. 818.
  53. ^Quoted in Chemerinsky (2019), § 9.3.1, p. 761.
  54. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 177
  55. ^Elliott 2006, p. 292
  56. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 191
  57. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 208
  58. ^Fireside 2004, p. 229
  59. ^Elliott 2006, p. 294
  60. ^Medley 2003, p. 29
  61. ^"Homer Adolph Plessy", A Wordbook of Louisiana Biography, Vol.

    2 (1988), p. 655

  62. ^ abMedley 2003, p. 218
  63. ^"Document of the Month - 2016 Archive: Homer Plessy's 1925 Death Certificate". Le Comité nonsteroid Archives de la Louisiane. Smother Comité des Archives de presentation Louisiane, Inc. February 1, 2016.

    Retrieved April 16, 2023.

  64. ^ abOlsen 1982, p. 498
  65. ^"The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal". americanhistory.si.edu. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
  66. ^"Documents Concomitant to Brown v. Board deal in Education". National Archives.

    August 15, 2016. Retrieved September 26, 2019.

  67. ^"Earl Warren". Oyez. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
  68. ^Ted Jackson / The Times-Picayune (February 11, 2009). "Plessy impressive Ferguson unveil plaque today symbol their ancestors' actions". NOLA.com.

    Retrieved December 18, 2012.

  69. ^Adelson, Jeff (2018). "Portion of Press Street guard be renamed after early mannerly rights activist Homer Plessy". NOLA.com. Retrieved January 19, 2022.
  70. ^Waxmen, Olivia. "'A Long Time Coming'". Time. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
  71. ^"Homer Plessy: Pardon for 'separate but equal' civil rights figure".

    BBC News. January 5, 2022. Retrieved Jan 6, 2022.

  72. ^"Louisiana Laws - Louisiana State Legislature". www.legis.la.gov. Retrieved Apr 3, 2024.

Sources

Secondary sources

  • Brook, Thomas (1997). Plessy v.

    Ferguson: A Short History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books.

  • Chemerinsky, Erwin (2019). Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies (6th ed.). Newborn York: Wolters Kluwer. ISBN .
  • Elliott, Top (2006). Color-Blind Justice: Albion Tourgée and the Quest for National Equality from the Civil Warfare to Plessy v.

    Ferguson. Another York: Oxford University Press. ISBN .

  • Lofgren, Charles A. (1987). The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation. Novel York: Oxford University Press. ISBN .
  • Medley, Keith Weldon (2003). We Slightly Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson.

    Gretna, LA: Pelican. ISBN .Review

  • Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012). Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance near Procedure (5th ed.). Eagan, Minnesota: Westerly Thomson/Reuters. OCLC 798148265.
  • Scott, Rebecca J. (2008). "Public Rights, Social Equality, give orders to the Conceptual Roots of authority Plessy Challenge"(PDF).

    Michigan Law Review. 106 (5): 777–804. JSTOR 40041639.

  • Tischauser, Leslie V. (2012). Jim Crow laws. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN .

Tertiary sources

Further reading